Part of ELIAMEP Outlook, Predictions for 2023, published as ELIAMEP Policy Paper #121. A Greek version was published in the daily «TA ΝΕΑ» (Friday 30 December 2022).
In our December 2021 forecasts, we confidently predicted that “rising inflation in Europe will probably turn out to be temporary”. A year later, inflation is still with us, at its highest level since 1981. One can hardly fault readers for thinking that there may after all be some truth in the cliché that economists are better at predicting the past than the future.
In our defence, we would like to appeal to three extenuating circumstances.
The first is that we are not soothsayers. We did not predict that President Putin would unleash full-scale war on Ukraine – but, then, US warnings that Russia was going to invade were being dismissed by European leaders as late as 23 February 2022. It was Russian aggression that caused energy costs to skyrocket, causing the rest of the Consumer Price Index to climb with them.
Our second plea for mitigation is that we were hardly alone in underestimating inflationary pressures. Even though US inflation is higher, and unrelated to energy costs, few economists predicted its course. Janet Yellen, the US Treasury secretary, admitted as much in late May 2022. As she told reporters: “There have been unanticipated and large shocks to the economy that have boosted energy and food prices and supply bottlenecks that have affected our economy badly that I didn’t — at the time — didn’t fully understand, but we recognise that now”.
With hindsight, it is not difficult to see that economic policy makers around the world appeared to be fighting the last war until late in the day--not unlike the French generals on the eve of the Nazi invasion of May 1940. The trauma of the previous decade, when ECB President Jean-Claude Trichet raised interest rates twice in 2011 (“to nip inflation in the bud”), plunging the European economy into deeper recession, meant that today’s decision makers were unwilling to listen to the policy hawks calling for an early response to rising prices. In this context, erring on the side of caution posed a real risk.
As a matter of fact, central banks are now more tolerant of inflation than they were in the recent past: few seem to have the stomach for attempts to bring inflation down to 2% at the cost of engineering yet another recession and causing unemployment to soar. Moreover, international organisations think that inflation has now peaked and is about to de-escalate: the IMF forecast (in October) that prices in the Eurozone would rise by 3% to 6% in 2023; the European Commission (in November) came up with the conservative estimate of 6.1%; and the ECB (in December) put inflation in 2023 at 5.5%. (Inflation in the Eurozone in 2022 was expected to reach 8.1%.) This is the third and final point in our defence of last year’s prediction: rising inflation in Europe may well turn out to be temporary after all, albeit slightly less temporary than we all thought at first.
On another note, even though prospects for the European economy will also depend on what happens on the battlefields of Ukraine, recent developments leave room for (cautious) optimism. European manufacturers have recently achieved the rare feat of drastically reducing energy consumption while keeping industrial production at its previous level. Clearly, energy-intensive firms are struggling. But European manufacturing as a whole has to date proved remarkably flexible and inventive.
This is not to deny that the risk of deindustrialisation is real. To some extent, the fall in industry’s share of the economy and the rise of services are simply the continuation of a long-term trend associated with the emergence of new industrial powerhouses in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China and elsewhere. This trend was reinforced by the laissez faire policy paradigm which viewed the failures of industrial policy in the 1970s as sufficient cause to abandon any ambitions of influencing the direction and pace of economic change through government action. The implications are now clear for all to see: entire industries have been allowed to desert old production centres and relocate elsewhere, while in terms of essential resources (energy, microprocessors, rare earths), the West is faced with dependence on foreign and often hostile regimes.
In the US, the quest for strategic autonomy was given a huge boost by the passing of the Inflation Reduction Act in August 2022, which provides for subsidies and tax relief worth $369 billion for firms investing in climate solutions. While clearly an impressive contribution to the fight against climate change, one side effect of the Act is that it radically changes the calculus by which firms weigh up investment decisions: European firms such as BASF and Enel have already announced that they will be investing in the US in order to take advantage of the very substantial public support made available by the Act, while US firms such as Intel have put investment projects in Europe on hold. In response, the European Commission, and those member states with the requisite fiscal space, are currently working on countermeasures. Whether these will be enough to stem the tide of relocation and give European manufacturing a new lease for life remains to be seen.
The Greek economy, though still nowhere near its 2007 peak, has outperformed expectations, bouncing back strongly from the Covid recession. The optimism of economic actors is a useful resource, provided it does not degenerate into complacency. Dependence on tourism remains excessive, too many activities remain low-tech and low-wage, and the turn to a more viable export-led growth model remains aspirational for now. The resources made available by the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility constitute a unique opportunity to modernise the economy, to upgrade skills and raise the game for Greek firms. We must not let it go to waste.
